26.01.08

La Ville (Supplement)

Raymond Barre un « Français innocent »? /
Premier ministre, Monsieur Raymond Barre était tout en rondeurs : on pouvait aisément le regarder comme le paradigme du Français innocent, il en avait les airs, les allures, l’onction, le patelin, le débonnaire, il exsudait le bon droit, la légitimité, la satisfaction et le sûreté de soi. Même si aujourd’hui Raymond Barre a gagné en minceur, sa francité n’en a souffert nulle atteinte, on serait presque tenté d’ajouter « hélas ». Ce qui fait problème, s’agissant de lui, c’est la confluence des deux prédicats : « français » et « innocent ». Monsieur Barre en effet récidive : interrogé sur France Culture, le 1er mars, dans une émission intitulée « Le rendez-vous des politiques », l’ex- « meilleur économiste de France » tombe carrément le masque, remplace ses rondeurs anciennes par la hargne têtue, laisse libre carrière à une vindicte qui lui fait réitérer, le jabot gonflé des satisfecit qu’il s’octroie, les proférations sinistres d’il y a vingt-sept ans. La différence, c’est qu’en 1980, quand, après l’attentat de la synagogue de la rue Copernic, Raymond Barre déplorait la mort de « Français innocents », il le faisait « innocemment » si l’on peut dire, parlant selon sa pente naturelle, ne comprenant rien au scandale et à la condamnation unanimes qu’allaient susciter ses propos. Aujourd’hui, il sait, il ne peut pas ne pas savoir, il n’a pas un mot de regret et, voulant mettre les points sur les i, il s’enferre d’une façon aussi révoltante que comique. Que les terroristes massacrent des Juifs à l’intérieur d’une synagogue n’a, pour Monsieur Barre, rien de contraire à l’ordre du monde et au train des choses. Ce qu’il reproche aux auteurs de l’attentat, c’est de ne pas avoir assez « ciblé » l’assassinat, c’est la bavure qui a transformé l’explosion en « attentat aveugle » puisque trois « François innocent », « pas du tout liés à cette affaire » (sic) y ont laissé leur vie. « Ce qui était la caractéristique de ceux qui faisaient l’attentat, c’était de châtier des Juifs coupables » (sic), poursuit-il. Coupables de quoi ? Nul ne le sait, Monsieur Barre ne le dit pas mais on infère aisément : ontologiquement coupables. Tuer, comme ce fut le cas, mon amie, l’Israélienne Aliza Shagir, qui passait elle aussi par hasard, rue Copernic, tuer des femmes juives, des enfants juifs, des vieillards juifs, comme cela arrive ailleurs dans les cafeterias et les autobus, ce n’est pas une action aveugle, mais ciblée et méditée au contraire, puisque, coupables, les Juifs attirent un juste châtiment : en d’autres termes, le terrorisme aveugle semble ne pas gêner Raymond Barre, pourvu qu’il soit ciblé !

Ayant dit, l’ex-Premier enfile les perles dans un très cohérent délire. Après avoir longuement exonéré Maurice Papon de toute faute (la déportation des Juifs n’etait de « faire fonctionner la France »), il reprend à son compte, en la portant à son acmé, l’antienne de la médaille France, tous deux concouraient, chacun à sa façon, à maintenir la Nation en ordre de marche. La Nation, c’est-à-dire les « grands commis » à la Papon et la sacro-sainte admisnistration. Une extraordinaire division du travail et un génie certain de la communication font, selon Barre, que de Gaulle, dès la Libération, maintient en place et en France les fonctionnaires de Vichy pas trop compromis, tandis qu’il expédie au contraire en Allemagne, pour administrer les vaincus, « ceux qui s’étaient trop manifestés dans les voies de la collaboration » (sic !). On n’avait encore jamais entendu cela, le général Pierre Koenig, vainqueur de Bir-Hakeim et premier gouverneur militaire français en Allemagne occupée, doit frémir dans son sépulcre !

Après Papon, l’ex exonère Bruno Gollnish, son ancien collègue d’université et son conseiller municipal quand il était maire de Lyon, bien connu comme négateur obstiné et pinailleur de la Shoah : « Moi, je suis quelqu’un qui considère que les gens peuvent avoir leur opinion, c’est leur opinion » (sic). Raymond Barre, on le voit, est large d’esprit. A la fin des fins, conclusion de tout, il nous livre à deux reprises la clé universelle des attaques portées contre lui et des maux du monde : « le Lobby juif » ! Le lobby juif est un fait de nature : de même que le soleil se lève et que l’eau bout à 100 °C, il y a un lobby juif et c’est lui le reponsable. « Je vous ai parlé très franchement », dit-il à Raphael Enthoven, le présentateur de l’emission : « Que vous me fassiez passer pour un antisémite, pour quelqu’un qui ne reconnaît pas la Shoah, j’ai entendu cela cent fois et cela m’est totalement égal. » Diantre ! Entre le « Lobby juif », la « Conspiration des sages de Sion », la « Juiverie internationale », il faut un trébuchet ultrasensible pour déceler une différence de nature. Même si cela lui est « totalement égal », j’accuse Monsieur Raymond Barre d’être un antisémite. Plus encore : je l’accuse de se faire le héraut de cette passion immonde, de la propager, de s’en glorifier, délit qui tombe sous le coup de la loi.

Cet article a été publié le 6 mars, dans Libération, sous le titre «J’accuse Raymond Barre d’être un antisémite», choisi par la rédaction du journal sans que j’aie été consulté ni averti. J’ai tenu à rétablir ici le titre que j’avais donné à mon texte.

/ De Claude Lanzmann.

//

... während meiner arbeit an diesem buch besuchte ich so oft wie möglich die gerichtsverhandlungen gegen die wegen des giftgasanschlags auf die u-bahn in tokyo angeklagten mitglieder der aum-sekte. ich wollte diese menschen mit eigenen augen sehen und mit eigenen ohren hören, was sie zu sagen hatten, um zu erfahren, wer sie waren und was sie dachten. stattdessen wurde ich zeuge unendlich trauriger und, hoffnungsloser und bedrückter szenen. der gerichtssaal kam mir vor wie ein raum ohne ausgang. nachdem wir doch irgendwie hineingelangt waren, hatte er sich in eine alptraumhafte sphäre verwandelt, aus der es kein entkommen gab.

die meisten angeklagten scheinen jeden glauben an ihren guru shoko asahara verloren zu haben. der angebetete meister hat sich als falscher prophet entpuppt, und sie müssen zunehmend erkennen, wie sehr er sie für seine wahnsinnigen zwecke missbraucht hat. dass sie durch ihren gehorsam grausame verbrechen gegen die menschlichkeit begangen haben, hat sie in tiefste selbstzweifel gestürzt, und sie zeigen reue. zumeist sagen sie, wenn sie von ihrem guru sprechen, heute nur noch "asahara", ohne respektvollen titel. bisweilen schwingt sogar ein abfälliger ton mit. ihre einsicht und angst wirken aufrichtig auf mich. kaum vorstellbar, dass diese leute sich zu einer so abscheulichen, sinnlosen tat überreden liessen.

andererseits haben sie an einem gewissen punkt ihres lebens alle weltlichen bindungen gelöst und bei aum shirikyo ein mystisches ideal gesucht - was sie offenbar nicht bereuen. ganz deutlich wird dies, wenn die angeklagten - vom richter zu einzelheiten befragt - die lehre ihrer gemeinschaft zu erklären suchen. dabei fällt häufig der satz: "für die allgemeinheit ist das vielleicht schwer zu verstehen, aber ... " diese ausdrucksweise belegt meines erachtens, dass sie eine spirituelle überlegenheit gegenüber der "allgemeinheit" für sich in anspruch nehmen und sich in gewisserweise immer noch für auserwählt halten. sie sprechen es nicht aus, aber ich lese darin etwa folgende botschaft: "die verbrechen, die wir begangen haben, tun uns unendlich leid. wir haben fehler gemacht. verantwortlich ist jedoch asahara, der uns den befehl dazu gegeben hat. wenn er nicht den verstand verloren hätte, hätten wir unsere aufrichtigen religiösen ziele friedlich, ohne jemanden zu befehligen, verfolgen können." kurz gesagt: "unsere mittel waren falsch. wir bereuen, was wir getan haben. dennoch sind die ziele von aum im kern nicht falsch, und es ist nicht notwendig, sie zu verwerfen."

auf diese überzeugung von der "richtigkeit der ziele" bin ich nicht nur bei meinen interviews mit aum-mitgliedern gestossen, sondern auch bei jenen, die aum verlassen haben und die gemeinschaft jetzt offen kritisieren. alle habe ich die gleiche frage gestellt: ob sie bereuen, aum je begetreten zu sein. fast alle haben dies verneint; kaum jemand betrachtete seine zeit bei aum als vergeudet. warum wohl? das ist leicht zu beantworten: diese menschen entdeckten bei aum eine reinheit der absichten, die sie im alltäglichen leben nicht fanden. selbst wenn alles mit einem schrecklichen alptraum zu ende ging, ist ihnen die warme, strahlende erinnerung an den frieden geblieben, den sie anfangs bei aum fanden. dieses gefühl ist nicht leicht zu ersetzen. man kann also sagen, dass aum in ihnen noch lebendig ist und ihnen sogar energie verleiht. das bedeutet nicht, dass sie möglicherweise zu aum zurückkehren würden. sie wissen jetzt, dass es sich um eine falsche und gefährliche ideologie handelte und das ihre beziehungen zu aum voller widersprüche und defizite war.

dennoch habe ich den eindruck, dass eine idealvorstellung von aum in ihnen weiterlebt, eine lichte, utopische erinnerung, die sich ihnen tief eingeprägt hat. und sollte eines tages wieder ein ähnliches licht vor ihnen aufleuchten - es muss nicht einmal eine sekte sein -, werden die alten erinnerungen sie vielleicht wieder dorthin ziehen. daher bergen "aum-ähnliche lehren" für unsere gesellschaft im augenblick grössere gefahren als aum selbst. nach dem sarin-anschlag richteten sich aller augen und ohren auf aum-shinrikyo. immer wieder wurde die frage laut, warum "eine so hoch gebildete elite" sich einer so absurden und gefährlichen sekte zugewandt hatte. tatsächlich setzte sich die führungsspitze von aum fast ausschliesslich aus gut gebildeten akademikern zusammen. so ist es kein wunder, dass die gesellschaft davon schockiert war. der umstand, dass menschen mit derart vielversprechenden aufstiegsmöglichkeiten so leicht auf den status, den die gesellschaft ihnen anbietet, verzichten, um sich stattdessen einer sekte anzuschliessen, gilt vielen beobachtern als ernst zu nehmendes indiz für einen entscheidenden defekt des japanischen erziehungssystems.

während meiner gespräche mit mitgliedern und auch ehemaligen mitgliedern von aum gewann ich jedoch den deutlichen eindruck, dass sie diesen weg nicht trotz ihrer zugehörigkeit zu einer gesellschaftlichen elite eingeschlagen hatten, sondern im gegenteil gerade deswegen. hier bietet sich ein vergleich mit der rolle an, die in der vorkriegszeit für viele japanische intellektuelle die mandschurei gespielt hat. 1932 hatte japan auf chinesischem boden den marionettenstaat "manchukuo" errichtet, und wie bei aum shinrikyo gab eine akademische elite - die besten verwaltungstechniker, naturwissenschaftler und gelehrten - eine vielversprechende zukunft in japan auf, um neue möglichkeiten jenseits des ozeans zu suchen. die meisten von ihnen waren jung, voller ehrgeiziger pläne, sehr begabt und gut ausgebildet. wenn sie jedoch den restriktiven strukturen des japanischen staates unterworfen blieben, würden sie ihre fähigkeiten niemals ganz zur wirkung bringen können. genau aus diesem grund entschieden sie sich für jenes flexiblere land, das experimente zuliess, auch wenn dies bedeutete, einen vorgegebenen, sicheren pfad zu verlassen.

in diesem punkt waren jene jungen intellektuellen idealistisch und ihre motive rein. zudem waren sie überzeugt, einem höheren zweck zu dienen und sich auf dem richtigen pfad zu befinden. aber ihrem unternehmen fehlte ein entscheidender aspekt. heute wissen wir, dass dasjenige, was fehlte, "ein mehrdimensionales historisches bewusstsein" war; oder, auf konkreter ebene, eine "verbindung zwischen wort und tat". dagegen begannen beschönigende schlagworte wie "die harmonie der fünf völker" oder "die ganze welt unter einem dach" ein eigenleben zu führen, während im hintergrund die blutige realität das moralische vakuum füllte, bis der sturmwind der geschichte die ehrgeizigen technokraten davonwirbelte. der sarin-anschlag der aum-sekte liegt noch nicht lange zurück, als dass alle seine implikationen genau zu analysieren wären. dennoch lässt sich dasjenige, was ich über die bedeutung der mandschurei gesagt habe, in eingeschränkter form auch auf aum anwenden. beiden bewegungen fehlte die anbindung in einen grösseren zusammenhang, und aus diesem mangel an wirklichkeitsbezug ergab sich die besagte diskrepanz zwischen sprache und handeln.

zweifellos hatten die angehörigen des aum-ministeriums für wissenschaft und technik in der regel ganz verschiedene gründe für ihren entschluss, der welt zu entsagen und sich aum anzuschliessen. gemeinsam war ihnen jedoch der wunsch, ihre fachkenntnisse und fähigkeiten in den dienst eines hören ziels zu stellen, da sie begründete zweifel an der unmenschlichen, utilitaristischen tretmühle des gesellschaftssystems hatten, dem sie angehörten und an das sie ihre fähigkeiten und bemühungen nicht länger verschwenden wollten; denn damit hätten sie den sieg ihrer existenz verfehlt. ikuo hayashi, durch dessen beteiligung am sarin-anschlag zwei u-bahn-beamte ums leben kamen, gehört eindeutig zu diesem typus. er galt als ein ausgezeichneter chirurg, der sich leidenschaftlich für seine patienten engagierte. vielleicht entwickelte er gerade darum ein tiefes misstrauen gegen unser widersprüchliches, mangelhaftes gesundheitssystem und fühlte sich so stark von der aktiv spirituellen welt aum shinrikyos angezogen, die ihm eine überwältigende, vollkommene utopie anbot.

in seinem buch aum und ich beschreibt er seine damaligen vorstellungen: "in seiner predigt schilderte asahara uns das 'shambala-programm'. dazu gehörte der bau des 'lotus village', in dem es ein astral-krankenhaus und eine shinri-schule geben sollte, die eine gründliche ausbildung gewährleisten würde. (...) die medizinische behandlung sollte nach einer astral-medizin erfolgen, die auf asaharas visionen von einer weiteren (astralen) dimension und den erinnerungen an frühere leben basierte. die astral-medizin erforschte das karma und den energie-zustand des patienten, unter berücksichtigung des todes und der seelenwanderung (...) ich träumte von einer natürlichen landschaft, in der einzelne gebäude verstreut im grünen lagen. dort würde ich mich mit meiner ganzen kraft der medizinischen versorgung und meiner askese widmen. mein traum und 'lotus village' waren eins." hayashi träumte also davon, sich einer utopie zu verschreiben, unbelastet von irdischen zwängen strenge askese zu üben sowie eine medizin zu praktizieren, die er aus ganzem herzen vertreten konnte, und damit so vielen patienten wie möglich zu helfen. selbstverständlich waren seine absichten lauter, und die beschriebene vision besitzt einen tugendhaften glanz.

betrachtet man das ganze jedoch einmal nüchtern, wird deutlich, wie weit diese unschuldige schilderung von der wirklichkeit entfernt ist. die landschaft erscheint uns wie ein eigenartig flaches gemälde, ohne perspektive oder tiefenschärfe. wären wir damals, als dr hayashi aum-mitglied wurde, mit ihm befreundet gewesen und hätten versucht, ihm vor augen zu führen, dass seine vorstellungen realitätsfremd seien, hätten wir vermutlich keinen erfolg damit gehabt. andererseits hätten wir dr hayashi etwas sehr einfaches sagen können: wirklichkeit ent- und besteht aus widersprüchen, und wenn man diese ausschliesst, kommt auch die wirklichkeit abhanden. und: selbst wenn man zunächst glaubt, sie durch raffinierte sprache und logik eliminieren zu können, wird die scheinbar besiegte wirklichkeit ihrem feind irgendwo auflauern und sich rächen. wahrscheinlich hätte diese argumentation dr hayashi nicht überzeugen können. er hätte mit fachterminologie und logik geschickt widersprochen und erklärt, wie richtig und gut der weg doch sei, den er gehen würde. bis wir dann irgendwann geschwiegen hätten.

das schlimme daran ist, dass eine der realität entfremdete sprache und logik häufig grössere macht entwickeln als die sprache und logik der wirklichkeit, denn das ganze konglomerat aus verwirrung und widersprüchen liegt ihr wie ein felsbrocken im weg. so hätten wir, unfähig, einander zu verstehen, schliesslich getrennte wege gehen müssen. bei der lektüre von dr hayashis aufzeichnungen müssen wir oft nachdenklich innehalten und uns fragen, wie es überhaupt so weit kommen konnte. gleichzeitig ergreift uns ein gefühl von ohnmacht, weil wir wissen, dass wir ihn niemals hätten zurückhalten können. eine seltsame traurigkeit nimmt von uns besitz. besonders niedergeschlagen macht uns der gedanke, dass ausgerechnet diejenigen, die unserer "zweckorientierten gesellschaft" so kritisch gegenüberstanden, das argument der nützlichkeit gebraucht und am ende so viele menschen umgebracht haben. andererseits hält sich wahrscheinlich niemand für so unbedeutend, dass es ihm nichts ausmachen würde, in den mühlen eines systems zermalmt zu werden und dann zu sterben. eigentlich möchten wir doch alle wissen, wozu wir auf der welt sind und warum wir am ende sterben und verschwinden. steht es uns da überhaupt zu, menschen zu verurteilen, die sich ernsthaft um antworten bemühen?

doch genau an dieser stelle könnte uns ein tödlicher fehler unterlaufen. die physiognomie der wirklichkeit beginnt sich zu verzerren; plötzlich erkennen wir, dass der ort der verheissung sich verändert hat und nicht mehr derjenige ist, dem unsere suche galt. wie es in mark strands gedicht heisst: "die berge sind keine berge mehr; die sonne ist nicht die sonne." damit es keinen zweiten und dritten ikuo hayashi mehr geben wird, ist für unsere gesellschaft von essentieller wichtigkeit, die fragen, die durch den sarin-anschlag tragischerweise aufgeworfen wurden, in all ihren facetten zu analysieren. anscheinend haben die meisten von uns mit der sache abgeschlossen. vor sie war es schlimmer vorfall, aber nun, da alle schuldigen hinter schloss und riegel sind, fühlen sie sich nicht mehr direkt betroffen. dennoch sollten wir uns vor augen führen, dass der grossteil der menschen, die sich einer sekte anschliessen, nicht sonderlich aus dem rahmen fallen. sie sind weder auf der strecke gebliebene noch exzentriker, sondern völlig normale (vielleicht sogar allzu normale) menschen, die in unserer mitte leben. vielleicht grübeln sie ein bisschen zu viel. oder sie tragen einen kleinen kummer im herzen. oder sie können sich ihren mitmenschen nicht öffnen und sind deshalb bedrückt. oder sie finden keine möglichkeit, sich zu verwirklichen, und schwanken heftig zwischen stolz und minderwertigkeitsgefühlen hin und her. vielleicht gehöre ich selbst zu ihnen. oder sie.

ich habe noch ein weiteres persönliches motiv, mich für den sarin-anschlag in tokyo zu interessieren: er fand unterirdisch statt. unterirdische welten wie brunnen, gänge, höhlen, unterirdische flussläufe und kanäle, u-bahnen und dergleichen mehr haben mich als schriftsteller und als individuum schon immer stark fasziniert. die idee einer verborgenen passage - allein schon die vorstellung beflügelt meine phantasie und lässt in mir geschichten entstehen. in zweien meiner romane spielen unterirdische schauplätze eine besonders wichtige rolle. die helden steigen auf der suche nach etwas bestimmtem in unterirdische welten hinab und erleben dort allerlei abenteuer. natürlich tauchen sie in zweifacher hinsicht in diese unterwelten ein: physisch und psychisch. in dem einen roman lebt unter der erde seit undenklichen zeiten eine erfundene spezies. es sind grässliche kreaturen ohne augen, die sich von verwesendem fleisch ernähren. sie haben unter der stadt tokyo ein weit verzweigtes netz von gängen gegraben, die ihre nester verbinden. gewöhnliche menschen ahnen nichts von ihrer existenz.

der held des romans steigt in diese geheimnisvolle unterirdische welt hinab und stösst auf die grausigen spuren der schwärzlinge. er bahnt sich einen weg durch die finstere tiefe und gelangt an der u-bahn-station aoyama-itchome unversehrt wieder in die oberwelt. nachdem ich diesen roman geschrieben hatte, bildete ich mir manchmal, wenn ich mit der u-bahn fuhr, ein, ich sähe diese kreaturen in der dunkelheit. ich stellte mir vor, sie würden einen felsen auf die schienen rollen, den strom unterbrechen, die fenster einschlagen, in die wagen eindringen und uns fahrgäste mit ihren messerscharfen zähnen zerfetzen ... zugegeben, eine sehr kindliche phantasie. wie in einem billigen horrorfilm. dennoch hatte ich, wenn ich an der tür stand, das gefühl, wenn sich in der dunkelheit im glas die vorbeihuschenden pfeiler spiegelten, die abscheulichen kreaturen zu sehen. als ich von dem sarin-anschlag in der u-bahn erfuhr, fielen mir diese kreaturen ganz unwillkürlich wieder ein. einer persönlichen angst - oder einem wahn - zufolge bildete ich mir ein, es gäbe zwischen den von mir geschaffenen bösen wesen und jenen finsteren eindringlingen, die den pendlern in der u-bahn aufgelauert hatten, eine verbindung.

diese verbindung hat für mich eine grosse bedeutung und war mein persönliches motiv, das vorliegende buch herauszugeben. ich hatte nicht die absicht, die angehörigen der aum-sekte als grässliche ungeheuer zu bezeichnen, und dass ich dem einen meiner romane diese kreaturen geschaffen habe, sagt höchstens etwas über meine urängste aus. vielleicht entspringen sie einem urgrund unseres bewusstseins, dem kollektiven unterbewussten. für mich bedeuten sie schlicht den inbegriff der gefahren, die stets im dunkeln lauern und denen wir in wirklichkeit nie begegnen. dennoch drängen diese in tiefster finsternis verborgenen "monster" zeitweise nach oben und nehmen in unserem bewusstsein gestalt an. normalerweise fliehen wir vor den phänomenen des dunkels und ziehen das licht der sonne vor. aber bisweilen finden wir im schutz der dunkelheit trost und heilung. auch das brauchen wir. weiter aber wagen wir uns nicht voran; die verschlossene tür, die ins tiefste innere führt, dürfen wir unter keinen umständen öffnen. denn jenseits von ihr entfaltet sich die undurchdringlich finstere geschichte der schwärzlinge. daher haben in meiner persönlichen deutung (in meiner geschichte) die fünf täter der aum-sekte, die mit ihren schirmspitzen jene mit sarin gefüllten plastikbeutel durchstiessen, im dunklen untergrund von tokyo schwärme von schwärzlingen freigelassen. allein die vorstellung, erfüllt mich mit grauen, angst und ekel. auch wenn es banal klingt, muss ich es laut aussprechen: "das hätten sie niemals tun dürfen. aus keinem erdenklichen grund."

/ von haruki murakami.

La Ville (Ma Ville)

... // open house /

please ...

come over to 81st street i'm in the apartment above the bar
you know you can't miss it, it's across from the subway
and the tacky store with the mylar scarves
my skin's as pale as outdoors moon
my hair's silver like a tiffany watch
i like lots of people around me but don't kiss hello
and please don't touch
it's a czechoslovakian custom my mother passed on to me:
"the way to make friends, andy, is invite them up for tea"
open house, open house ...

i've got a lot of cats, here's my favorite
she's lady called sam
i made a paper doll of her, you can have it
that's what i did when i had st.vitus dance
it's a czechoslovakian custom my mother passed on to me
"give people little presents so they remember me"
open house, open house ...

someone bring the vegetables, someone please bring heat
my mother showed up yesterday, we need something to eat

i think i got a job today they want me to draw shoes
the ones I drew were old and used,
they told me to draw something new
open house, open house ...

fly me to the moon, fly me to a star
but there are no stars in the new york sky
they're all on the ground
you scared yourself with music, i scared myself with paint
i drew 550 different shoes today
it almost made me faint
open house, open house ...

/ By Lou Reed (with John Cale).

25.01.08

Du Mouvement

Begegnung in der Kastanienallee /

Ihm ward des Eingangs grüne Dunkelheit
kühl wie ein Seidenmantel umgegeben
den er noch nahm und ordnete: als eben
am anderen transparenten Ende, weit,

aus grüner Sonne, wie aus grünen Scheiben,
weiß eine einzelne Gestalt
aufleuchtete, um lange fern zu bleiben
und schließlich, von dem Lichterniedertreiben
bei jedem Schritte überwallt,

ein helles Wechseln auf sich herzutragen,
das scheu im Blond nach hinten lief.
Aber auf einmal war der Schatten tief,
und nahe Augen lagen aufgeschlagen

in einem neuen deutlichen Gesicht,
das wie in einem Bildnis verweilte
in dem Moment, da man sich wieder teilte:
erst war es immer, und dann war es nicht.

/ Von Rainer Maria Rilke. Entstehung: Sommer 1908, vor dem 15.07.1908 in Paris. Thema: Die Dialektik der Zeit: Das “momentane” Ereignis von Begegnung und Trennung erreicht einen der physikalischen Zeit enthobenen Zustand des Verweilens - analog zum Aufgehobensein eines jeden Ereignisses im Kunstwerk -, es ist für einen Augenblick “immer”, aber dann sogleich unwiderruflich nicht mehr.

23.01.08

L'Utopie Villageoise

studio one is, without doubt, the most important record label in the history of jamaican music. it is in many ways the foundation label of reggae. studio one has led the way throughout the evolution of reggae music in jamaica. from the very first ska records though rocksteady, roots, dj, dub - studio one has produced music of the highest quality throughout its reign. even today, where the actual output of new material is minimal, studio one rhythms are as popular as they were thirty years ago as singers and producers in jamaica re-use and re-record them for new songs on an almost daily basis. synonymous with studio one is clement sir coxsone dodd, owner and producer of studio one records. clement seymour dodd began his musical career playing records in his mother's restaurant in kingston, jamaica, shortly progressing to running the famous downbeat soundsystem, and later, record shops, a recording studio, a pressing plant, and, of course the historic studio one record label. mr dodd developed a love of american rythm 'n' blues from travelling to the united states regularly, initially as a farm worker bringing back exclusive r'n'b 45's for his soundsystem, and later, bringing them back to sell in his shops. soon after this he began to encourage jamaican musicians to record their re-interpretation of american r'n'b, in a style influenced by the soundsystems and dancehalls of kingston. this sound developed into the music style now known as ska. ska can be considered as the beginning of reggae, the musical voice of jamaica. he now divides his time between new york and jamaica, where he continues to run the label and his shops.

q: were you a musician? did you play an instrument?

a: no, only percussion, just percussion.

q: what inspired you to become involved with the music industry?

a: well, actually i started a love of the music business when i attended several orchestra dances and things like that. and my mother ahd a restaurant so i bought me a morphy richards radio and an extension speaker and started playing records there. and, at the time, i was purchasing a lot of luois jordan records and billy eckstine, because that's the music we were playing.

q: were you able to buy american records in jamaica, and how did that music go down in your mother's restaurant?

a: yeah, in jamaica. because of the music we were playing we got a lot of customers!

q: could you hear the american radio stations from jamaica?

a: yeah yeah yeah, because i was tuned into nashville tennessee, you know, where randy had their programme at that time - that was the big retailers in tennessee. and then you had like, voice of america, we used to tune to listen to, like be-bop, like billy eckstine, stuff like that was playing.

q: do you prefer jazz or r'n'b?

a: well i went to the us farm-working on the fruit and vegetable section, and there i was exposed to a lot of rhythm and blues, so i actually bought me a bogan amplifier and speakers, and sent them home.

q: what part of america did you go to?

a: that was liesburg, florida, picking oranges and stuff like that, you know. so ... bit all this time, while in jamaica i'm always close to the music, playing it, so my mother had an idea what it was like. so when i sent down the amplifier and speakers she got he box built because i sent her a drawing of how i wanted it to be done. and actually the first session it was my mother operated the soundsystem. so i'd say that's the first female disc-jockey in jamaica! right?

q: did you go to dances in america?

a: yeah yeah yeah we went dancing, because jamaicans are happy people, you know. jamaicans, they love fun, you know.

q: was it because you had the sound system that you wanted to produce some recordings using local musicians?

a: what really gave me the idea that we needed to produce some local recording, at about 1960 the rhythm and blues dreid up and in came the rock and roll, but rock and roll wasn't so popular in jamaica. it never went over. so i figured, more or less, then we'd have to get in the studio and get with that heavy dance beat, you know. so that's how we really thought of doing it.

q: did you hire a studio when you did your first recordings?

a: yes, i did my first recording at federal records, run by khouri, they were on foreshore road, so we used them a lot.

q: what was your first recording session and how did it come about?

a: well my first recording session was with roland alphonso, clue j, johnny moore and a few others that i don't 
remember offhand.

q: and did you ask them or did they come to you?

a: no, i went to them because this was something new, you know. even the idea of going into the studio knocked them out, because they hadn't ever thought of anything like that, you know.

q: were you asking them to record this music to play on your soundsystem, or was it to sell the records?

a: yeah, for the soundsystem. so our first session we did a little calypso, tango and tried a little rhythm and blues. and it came back, and at that time we took it from the dub to the demo - reference disc - which they actually call dub plate, but in those days it's known as reference disk, and when we played it back at the session everybody went wild! so then we realised this could be a thing, you know.

q: was your soundsystem only playing in your mother's restaurant?

a: no, this was after i had the soundsystem on the road, now, playing all over jamaica. and the people enjoyed it so much that we realised we could have a couple more sessions.

q: when you made your first recordings, did you think you were making jamaican music?

a: well yes, we aimed at, like, the crowd i'm used to. after being there a couple of years playing ... and we saw the music that they go for and we started to aim in that direction. but after a couple of releases, and we saw how it went, and we realise we're aiming for the world. get lyrics, trying to please, that's it after we see how the first set of records went over. when we actually started i didn't dream it could be a business. i thought it would be just suitable for my dances and whatever it is.

q: when or how did ska first come about?

a: well after maybe a year or two of experimenting and trying to come up with a beat of our own we came up with ska. with that pounding rhythm and that guitar riff on the off-beat. we realise it was so strong, so we set off and we decided we make that our national songs and you know it went on for a good while, let's say from about '61 to about '66, or around that time. then we did a little experimenting again and slowed it down on the rhythm and getting things on the rock side, and came up with that, what it was, ska rocksteady we came up with. and up to now i think the rocksteady period was really a very good period in the music history, rocksteady. so there's now quite a few what's ruling the dancehall are copy of the rocksteady, say '66, '68, ...

q: when did you first have your studio?

a: first i had my studio in '61.

q: was that before studio one the label?

a: yes, that's before studio one.

q: by the time you started realising releasing music on studio one, did know that you were making a business out of music?

a: well yes, because after like say about '58/'59 i was going into the studio so regular that i realise, that i figured more or less, if i had my own studio i could spend more time for perfection. so that's really where i got into having my own studio.

q: so in the 1960s how many people were involved at studio one?

a: well, say weekly - we had ten to twelve musicians employed weekly, say monday to friday working from 10 to 5.

q: and how many other employees did you have?

a: that would be say twelve perosns in the factory because we press our own records and we had another twelve persons inside working. we had three retail outlets, right, all in kingston and that would be another six persons there, and in the office we may have about fifty persons. it's just that looking back it look like that much but at the time ... it look likethat, you understand.

q: was your mother still working in her restaurant during this time?

a: well no, she was in charge of the factory. she ran the pressing plant and she also cooked for the workers and stuff like that.

q: did you only press and record studio one records?

a: no, i press a lot of outside records like bunny lee, the upsetters, i even press for duke reid at the time - a producer like duke reid he use it before he had his studio you know - and then harry j he use it a lot ... mudie ...

q: which were the first records you produced which were sold?

a: well, we release a song by the name of "my baby", jackie estick, an instrumental, because instrumental was big in those days. instrumental by the name of "shuffling jug", and one of the early records was "easy snapping" by theo beckford. and that was pressed up and sold.

q: was one of them a hit? were they played on the radio?

a: well no, but it was a hit in the dancehall, because in the early days, the radio station wouldn't play stuff like that, they only would play "doggie in the window" and stuff like that. (laughs) they used to play the foreign stuff, they wouldn't play the local stuff! as a matter of fact i'd say thank god for you europeans, because it was after the records went like pelting abroad they realised that our music arrived, and started to play it.

q: who would buy your records? djs?

a: well, no, people who attended the dance was more happy to buy the records that they were dancing to, because we were playing for two or three years before we started releasing our first music, you understand. and people now started to send the records that we released abroad, and they'd get a lot of feedback, you understand, and it took off from there, england and the united states. and actually why it take off so heavily in england is because a lot of jamaicans migrated to england, like say early '50s and '60s, so they were buying the records and they were partying out. then come the mixed marriage, so white and blacks got together and it just took off like that.

q: did people live at your studio?

a: well the only people actually living at brentford road was the wailers, marley, livingstone and peter tosh. actually i did it for marley, because when i signed marley, his guardian, she co-signed, and explained to me that where she was living, wasn't really quite suitable for him to stay, you know. so i set up a room at the back. actually when we bought the place, it was a place that someone was living in, so actually at the back there we had about three rooms, so i furnished the room and set up bob and then i realise i give him a guitar to help him pratice on and stuff like that. so peter tosh and bunny, they wouldn't go home in the evening ... they would stay there with him! (laughs). so i cleaned up two more rooms, put in beds and stuff like that you know.

q: would jackie mittoo come in and work there everyday?

a: yeah, he come in monday to friday.

q: did all the musicians, like jackie mittoo, go home each evening?

a: yeah, they go home in the evening.

q: was jackie mittoo a good musician from the beginning?

a: yes, he was very good, but i got him on to becoming a thorough musician. to help him along the way i got him to ernest ranglin, clue j, who plays bass ...

q: were they better musicians than he was?

a: yeah yeah, they were thourough musicians, jackie both learn and earn by me, but he have the rhythm. inside of him, and i be so close to the music, playing the music, i had stuff of my own, little lines and stuff like that and getting it together, but jackie really turn out to be a musical giant as time go by.

q: many jamaican musicians trained at the alpha school. did people like ernest ranglin and clue j go to the alpha school? [the alpha school, in kingston, run by roman catholic nuns, was, and still is, a school for wayward or runaway children. it is famous for its excellent music tuition which has let to it producing many of jamaica's finest musicians.]

a: no, clue j i think yes, he went to alpha.

q: was alpha the best school for a musician?

a: alpha, yes, alpha was a place for unruly kids who gave their parents problem and the parents had the option to take them there and while they were there alpha would learn them a trade, a compulsory trade, so music at alpha was the main thing.

q: so was alpha the best school?

a: yes, 'cause other than that it was just little private schools which maybe would only tutor you on the piano, but alpha it was a wide section from horns, you know, wind instruments, going right down to drums, or whatever it is.

q: who were the teachers at alpha?

a: well, you had some early teachers like lenny hibbert and a few that i can't remember right now.

q: was don drummond a teacher there or a student?

a: a student. but he himself was really a monster on the trombone, i never see anything like it, a unique sound and, you know, he got out of the instrument what others couldn't get, you know. he was really a genius, well gifted.

q: did you know eric dean's band [jamaica'a most popular big band orchestra]?

a: oh well yes, the eric dean band. well, that band, and the band master, was very helpful after like, coming out of the school, because he'd be producing different music that he needs and then actually he'd sort out the kind of tone. because coming out of the school, maybe you'd play a certain way ... but he be able to tell you, like, how to play. but eric dean was an early band that they put in a lot, they helped some of the musicians also.

q: who else taught those early musicians how to play?

a: well, the military always play a good part down there. the military always teach a lot of the guys. away from individual musicians who would help another guy, and so forth. but the main source was really alpha, and next place, tony hill. roland alphonso didn't go to alpha, he went tony hill.

q: and would you go to alpha or tony hill to find musicians?

a: well now, by the time i got in the business, and going to the different orchestra dances, i spot the people who i think i needed to play.

q: was there always a live band at the orchestra dances?

a: yes, at the different places you know like the beaumont club, where you'd have seen quite a few different bands.

q: were the skatalites formed before you met them?

a: no, the skatalites were formed in my studio.

q: were they recording for other people but under the name skatalites?

a: not recording under the name, yeah, but the full band wasn't recording under treasure isle because i knew jackie mittoo never play for duke reid you understand.

q: did the bands you recorded perform live?

a: yeah i was the first person to get the skatalites to perform live.

q: were they performing live to promote the records?

a: no, they were performing live as a means of, like, a living. then what helped them to, ... we actually brought them into the dancehall, where the soundsystem was playing and bring them on, like say, midnight and let them play for an hour or two and there's other people playing the records.

q: did people dance to them?

a: yeah man, because they were all worked up and always loved it on the disc.

q: was that exciting?

a: exciting, yeah.

q: how many records did you press each month or week?

a: like you would ask, how many records i made? i made roughly twenty songs a week.

q: recorded or released?

a: recorded, recorded right. because we sold a lot. from day to day from ten to five we might do about four ... four songs 
or five songs, we have monday, tuesday, wednesday, thursday, friday - five hours would be twenty.

q: would that be recording the singing as well as the backing track?

a: no no that would be like the backing track. what we do now - in the evening at times, the artist who work, they may ask for lunch time, or they ask for early one hour, so that way they come in in the evening and put the voice on. and we have saturday and sunday that we also do the voices. musically setting up the rhythm during the week, and in the evenings and on the weekend doing the vocals, because why we did it like that, them artist would sing the song five/ten different times until we got the one that we figure is the best.

q: but the musicians didn't need that?

a: no! the musicians, we just get them inside there and within three/four takes we figure this is a good take, right? but in the early days before multi-track everybody had to be singing and playing together. and sometimes the musicians they get well miserable after four or five takes and the artist can't get it right so the producer would say, "oh it's such a nice tune it looks like we have to make an instrumental of this if you can't sing it!" (laughs) so the artist would tighten up his style and try and sing because two more tries, if he doesn't sing it, he's going to make it into instrumental! (laughs) so he focus hard on trying to make it!! so it was real fun. but those are the days when it's mono, it's monotrack, so everything had to be right while going, because if you make a mistake you have to stop and start it from the top again. so you can imagine when the musicians are starting and stopping and it's not their fault it's the artists fault, this is how they got miserable at times. so then now, when multi-track came in, now that's when we were able now to lay the backing track, spend time to get it well tight. then you come in the evening, or another time, and then nobody rushing you to sing something to get it right. sometime ten different takes before you get a good take. and you say "that's it!" and move on to something else.

q: were you in the studio most of the time?

a: yes, i spend a lot of time in the studio. but if i had to go out, before i go out i gave a sense of direction about what i needed and jackie knew me alright, so that was that.

q: jackie mittoo understood what you wanted?

a: what i wanted, yes. and sometime we rehearse in the evening you know.

q: did you rehearse in a different room to where you recorded?

a: yeah we have different room and then we set up the work for the next day, you understand.

q: so if a singer came in in the evening, would you do just one track or ... ?

a: no. what we did, we had auditions on sundays.

q: every sunday?

a: yes, every sunday.

q: so you never had a day off?

a: (laughs) no but we enjoy it, as a matter of fact we didn't want to go to sleep! because in the nights we all over town. so on sundays we get a list of people we select. so then we say "you come back monday evening, you come tuesday evening you come come whatever time". and then we would do their recording and ... we'ree getting away from the mono days, the mono days were more difficult and we weren't recording that much ... but when it came to the time i had the studio of my own, we had the different artists from monday to friday. well there were times during the week that an artist comes in from the country and you find time to listen to him and whatever it is, and sometime you so happy to hear him that you figure "boy! let him in the studio right away!" you understand? (laughs) so that was the main thing.

q: so where they always singing over a rhythm that had already been made?

a: no no no, at this time all the rhythm was made for the artists, the only thing was that you did the rhythm first and sign the tape with the name and whatever it is, and the singer came in in the evening, or saturday, or sunday. because we have some other people residing in the outskirts, they record here monday, but they wouldn't be able to come back until maybe saturday or sunday, so they come back on sunday. but the boys who reside in kingston, most of them come back in the evenings. after the recording session is over, you'd term it as "voicing session" is on now, playing back the rhythm and singing to the rhythm.

q: so when were the words written? at the vocal recording session?

a: no, the words would have to be written before we do the recording you know.

q: would the aritst bring the melody with them?

a: yes the artist ... you listen to it and say "come in on tuesday". then get the band to lay down the backing track before. yes, get the band now to, while he's singing here, now, the band is rehearsing and practising and do that now a couple of times, 'til when they figure they get it together. 'cause how we did the recording: when the artist comes in, sings his song, then, after a couple of times listening to the melody, we work up an introduction, you know? so we now arrange an introduction, plus a solo just in the middle part - usually where the artist stops singing - you have a horn or guitar play a little solo, then the artist comes in.

q: so though the singing is recorded after the backing track has been laid down, the artist and the band have met the day before?

a: yeah yeah, that's right, to fit the song. and the artist being here he can have a good memory or whatever it is, you know. so when he comes in he hears it, he knows when to come on.

q: was it mainly solo singers, or trios?

a: no it was either, whether solo or a group, you know. yeah.

q: did people specifically come on sundays to studio one records for the auditions?

a: yes, at brentford road, yeah brentford road, because after operating for a while everybody knew that on sundays they could come as a matter of fact. and sundays even before i get to the studio the road is blocked! yeah man (laughs). everybody outside.

q: how many people would come to an average sunday audition?

a: it be like two or three hundred! yeah yeah, just like that - becuase some not even artists you know, but some interested just come to hang about, hang around you know, so we open the gate and let them.

q: so what happened with all these people hanging around, how did you get any work done?

a: well that day we got through because, what it was like, we had at the front, a portion of brentford road there, and then we have a fence there (he describes it with his hands). the studio is here, so we go through the gate, the fence here, no-one could get to where we are, we take them per artist or per group, one by one, take them round to the back and them sit them down, you know.

q: what if somebody was no good?

a: yes, yes well! "come back next year!" you know (laughs). yeah that's right. we got through it fast, because we had an idea from when the guy open his mouth, we know whether he can do whatever it is. there were guys who come who haven't got a good song, but he has a good voice.

q: so could you get him a song from somebody else?

a: yes, yes, we had people working for us who just write, you know. their job by me, and they got paid, they used to write songs. you understand?

q: who were the most famous people you discovered through auditions?

a: everyone had to come through that, you know, from bob marley come right down, everybody had to go through that process.

q: so when bob marley played he was on of hundreds of people?

a: no he wasn't really one of hundreds of people, because a friend told me of these guys and i heard them through joe higgs. because joe higgs was one of my regular artists and he had always be telling me about this group that he's rehearsing.

q: becaise he was teaching them to sing wasn't he?

a: that's right. so this friend of mine, seecup patterson brought them. when they came i loved that youthful sound that they had, you know. that's a good sound, wasn't so heavy on the lyrics, they did some spirituals and stuff like that, and in the meantime, we arrange the writing for them like "it hurts to be alone". and that was one of the first.

q: when they came did they start to live with you straght away?

a: no, no, no, no. that was after i realised this was a good group and i decide to sign them up.

q: you thought they'd so much in them you wanted to keep them around?

a: yes, so when it came to signing them, then they, the guardian, came and she co-sign and she explain to me that living by her wasn't quite right and if i could help them out that way. i was just certain because i felt the vibes that this guy was a good guy, a good vocalist, so then we set up the room at the back of the studio.

q: when did lee perry become involved? what did he start doing?

a: well now, lee perry was like a handyman around me. lee perry was visiting treasure isle place before he came by me. as a matter of fact, how he came by me now is, there was an incident going between him and duke reid or whatever it is, i heard it and i tell him, "if that is the case, try somebody else, if you're not getting justice there". so he came by me and ... he was more like a handyman, when i have to do certain errands, he'd go. but we drove up together and went all around, so this is how he got onto the idea of recording, because he was at the studio with me from time to time.

q: why did you approach him in the first place?

a: well this vibe i got about him. is first between him and treasure isle, there was a song that he was saying it was his song, and duke reid gave it to somebody else, you understand.

q: but did you feel he was a creative person?

a: well yes. as far as ideas of writing songs, you know and we got together and we co-wrote together, and he didn't have any great voice but i gave him a chance and he recorded with me a lot, but he was more like handy, you know, to send out to do this, to do that. he was like a little right-hand man, you know. i don't know if you know that term (laughs).

q: was he a lot younger than you?

a: at that time he was quite young, i think perry might be about six years younger than me, but he was from the country again, the outskirts. yes.

q: and was it the same situation when you met prince buster at the start?

a: well yes, because prince buster, earlier, he came by me and his mother asked me to take care of him, you know. he was like the gate man, when we had a session he would stay at the gate.

q: he was a boxer wasn't he?

a: yes! (laughs) that's a fun part of it, he was never a great boxer, it was a gimmick because he had a bout at the stadium, and he had apid the guy to lose, so the guy be like was showing and ounch prince and prince got close to him, so prince had him and prince punch him on his back and he lie down, not even a good knock, you know. they held the purse for a few weeks 'cause they couldn't see how the guy got knocked out.

q: be he was a successful musician, wasn't he?

a: yeah man!

q: did you think he was going to be that successful?

a: yes yes yes.

q: were you rivals?

a: well yes, but we get on together, because everybody know that he was coming out of my camp, that he was my student as well. yeah yeah. that's when i told you he used to keep gate for me.

q: were you rivals with duke reid?

a: well, he was a good friend of mine, but he was more my senior.

q: was it true that he used to send people to mess up the dances?

a: yes he did that, but it wasn't all that, because it was before the gun came into play, so it would be like throwing stones at your back or stuff like that, you know.

q: sort of being naughty rather than being dangerous?

a: yeah that's right, even the rude now. we call rude naughty. instead of dangerous. i like that term yeah! (laughs) because we made the first set of rude boy songs you know. with wailers.

q: was that the beginning of rock steady?

a: yeah that's right.

q: so is that what rude boys are, people with a bid of attitude?

a: and rude and things like that ...

q: with a lot of people with a lot of attitude, how come running a business didn't end up in chaos quite often?

a: well you see, the respect is there for you.

q: so you could walk in and everyone would respect you straight away?

a: yeah, that's right you know. and well, what we can say ... in the early days you know there was a lot of love. you know the rude part came in long after, and as a matter of fact that's when i quit the soundsystem.

q: did you stop the soundsystem in the late '60s?

a: yeah the late '60s and that rude attitude and carry-on, you know. well, in my own way i was a disciplinarian, you know. i felt you got to be straightforeward and you don't do anything wrong. i'm a god-fearing person, that sort of thing. manage okay because it was before the gun thing and all that. so when i stopped the soundsystem thing, there was so much other person who wanted to work with me that they would go and play my record and promote my recording anyway.

q: so you didn't need to be there?

a: i didn't need to be there. somehow somehow, but then the freedom was there for me to really concentrate with the business side even more. because work with the soundsystem, i had to be there different hours of the night and out there with them. but now i could spend more time in the studio, get more sleep, you understand. 'cause at one time i was wandering man! didn't got to bed, just went on going to the different dances and having fun.

q: were the dances at the weekend or every day?

a: well almost everyday. because monday nights we call that matinee dance, and we have wednesday nights matinee dance. they would start about say 8 o'clock, and end about say 2 o'clock, but there come a time when nobody want to go home, so you just go with it, you understand. and there was no strict rules, you know in england things got to be closed by a certain time, you understand, but out there things just go right on, you understand. then we usually serenade on tuesdays and thursdays. when i say serenade, it's going somewhere, play free and announce the dances coming up: "saturday we'll be playing such and such, spend a couple of bucks, see the guys, buy them a beer", you know.

q: would that be for an hour or all night?

a: no, that generally go on 'til 11, 12 o'clock.

q: did you ever have a radio show?

a: yes, after a while we have a radio show to promote the records. yeah. we had the sounds of young jamaica. and winston james used to do the ... and jackie take care of that.

q: how many records were released per week?

a: well i'd say, released about 4 or 5 per week.

q: 45s?

a: yeah, 45s uh huh.

q: how many did you press initially?

a: we press like five hundred.

q: would the original pressing have a label and packaging?

a: white labels first. that's how you'd find out if you were going to press any more. well, that's right. then people come in buying it right, because by this time you got a lot of soundsystem total in the whole island, but by about mid '60s may you had soundsystems all over. this is when i realised i didn't have to go out playing the records, because the soundsystem was a means of promoting the record also.

q: if you had a big hit how many would you press?

a: actually after that first 500, you realise how big the thing is and it depend on how fast that goes, then if you go to the jukebox place they might have had 2000 or whatever it is.

q: just for jamaica's jukeboxes?

a: yeah man jamaica, yeah man. there were jukeboxes all over, and that was the thing that helped promote the record also, you understand.

q: how many copies would a good record sell?

a: in them days 4000 was a good seller.

q: which record do you remember as the fastest selling?

a: well i'd say like "cry me a river", "one love", "simmer down".

q: did you have the same currency as england?

a: at that time, yeah, because after independence it changed to the dollar, the jamaican dollar. about '69.

q: so it wasn't much money that you got after all?

a: no, no, it wasn't much money, what really usually help us was if you had a good record and you was selling it on the pre-release for say 15 shillings. yeah. so you'd make a killing. if it was that strong you could cash in on say 2000 15 shillings, and after that now it goes to seven and six shillings.

q: so was it your advantage to keep it on pre-release?

a: yeah but if it's not selling on pre-release you might see if you lower ht eprice and see if can get some action.

q: was a pre-release always more expensive?

a: yeah yeah, pre-release was always more money, because some records you go straight to release. some records didn't have that quality for pre-release.

q: was the pre-release for exclusivity?

a: not only that but you find the sound-men, the club, would buy it to play at their club, but the ordinary person would wait 'til it come on ordinary release.

q: if you sold 4000 in jamaica how many would you sell in england?

a: in england now it was all different, because i have statement from island reocrds up to now. just few records really sell up to 7000 for island records.

q: but sometimes they would have a hit, wouldn't they?

a: yeah yeah, sometimes they have a good hit, like lee harvey oswald and stuff like that, you know.

q: so how many would that sell?

a: that was always 7000, always! no well, actually, you know what was messy then, you had some of the producers here was selling this stuff for little and nothing or whatever it is. they used to bring up a grip load of music and just sell it for a round figure. well these records now, both whoever had the person who buy it over there, since they never spend no great money on the purchase of the records, they put the money into promotion and those were a lot of stuff went into the charts or what.

q: you started with ska and rocksteady and then reggae. were you always trying to do something new?

a: yes yes, we always try, because out of a lot of people who were producing in jamaica, i think we were the most steadiest in the business and i think we were the only person with a regular studio band playing weekly. because actually i still have at least 60% of my stuff unreleased you understand. but actually i'm re-doing, the music was good then, but i don't think much of the voice. so what we are doing now, is writing new songs and putting them on these rhythms and then it's done again.

q: when you recorded roots music, would it be fair to say that rastafarians wanted to record, and you were the only 
person who wanted to record them?

a: yes. well, we, i am the person who brought out the rastafarian. because what happen, in the earrly days you have people like don drummond, roland alphonso, tommy mccook, used to go in the hills and rehearse with the rastafarian, which was like count ossie. because this was a means of, like, rehearsal and really ... with the drums.

q: were they rastafarians, don drummond ... ?

a: no no, they just go where the drums is because then rehearsal space wasn't so much availible where you have guitars and, you know, so you go in the hills and rehearse, you know, as with the boys, just beating the drum, exercise, ideas. so after a while now, i brought ten to like a dancehall, the rastafarians who usually play the drums. this was after we make a couple of tracks with them, like "another moses" and quite a few songs and after get them inside, at the dance, feature them at midnight, and you have like guys beat the drums and long haired rastafarians and things like that, you know.

q: were the other rpoducers scared of them?

a: well, they usually figured like they could be bad guys, but i never see that though, you know. they had their different ideas and philosophy and whatever it is, and god, and whatever it is.

q: did they live in the countryside?

a: yes, on the hillside and whatever it is. but i didn't fear them, and then it was a form of music. with me now, i was fairly friendly and had a wide experience of things, so after i brought them in everybody start using them after. because it was just drums and whatever it is, so what you could put together with it so the average person could listen to it ... because they would just be chanting and you know whatever it is, but you could really get a melody on top of that and whatever it is.

q: did you notice a change in music from the '60s to the '70s?

a: well, in the '70s now you more certain than this is a business, you understand. and lucky for me i always approach it that way from about '68, getting everybody a proper contract and whatever it is. there's a question you asked regarding "were you trying to built something like motown"? well, when i started i didn't know of motown. the record companies that i knew of were imperial in hollywood. and then you have aladdin records, you have king records, specialty records, atlantic was a very good record company, and modern records.

q: so you were collecting the records, but did you know any of the record company people?

a: well, people i knew personally was like king.

q: was that sid nathan of king records?

a: yeah, i met nathan, yeah. these are the companies now i really pattern studio one after in the early days, then ... but i've always loved motown recordings. berry did a great job.

q: have you ever met berry gordy?

a: no, i never met him. but i did release motown in jamaica. yeah, i am the person who got motown very famous in jamaica.

q: did you distribute motown or license it?

a: yes, i license. i press them down there, time i had my own pressing company. well, it did well for a while, but after a while dynamic sounds came in and took it from me, byron lee.

q: was that similar to the 1964 world trade fair? [in 1964 edward seaga organised a group of reggae musicians to go to the us world trade fair to represent jamaican music. byron lee was aming the musicians, while the skatalites, at that time extremely popular, were conspicious by their absence.]

a: yeah. he went, but it was all politics, because we were the person who created the music, who really had it going, you know, so he just came on the bandwagon. because up to now, byron lee can't play a good ska. (laughs) no, honestly. wishy washy. that hard beat isn't there, isn't there.

q: so you had the shop, studio and label to juggle?

a: but, yes, but i had a good help, you know. me and my wife, you know, we been married a long while, you know, 30 odd years.

q: did your wife work in the business as well?

a: yes, in the early days, yes. because we work awhile before we had the studio now, when we had the studio we had a retail outlet in orange street a number of years and we had another outlet on barrow street, no bedford street, and this was a busy area, was in the market area. and the bus used to park along there for the people who's going out of town, the country people who comes in to sell whatever it is so we be there pumping music to the people before they go to the bus, and they come and buy the spiritual or whatever it is. and that was a good situation, then we had another store along east green street.

q: did the people in the countryside all hve record players?

a: yes, they all have record players then, because i'm talking like in the '60s they didn't have a great amount, but there was record players around.

q: and you say it would often be spirituals that they'd be buying?

a: no, no, the reggae was going, but you know these country people was mostly religious and like that, but they bought that.

q: was reggae more for people in town?

a: yeah, yeah, the city people were more hep to that, you know. but as time goes by it spread you know. to montego bay and the big cities ...

q: you said you had three sales reps, did studio one distribute itself in jamaica?

a: well yes, one would go on the outskirts of town like montego bay and all sorts of places, at that time we'd send out the record on consignment, you did rack jobbing, we had whole racks in cities all around jamaica, so we had one person doing that. well let's say, by the time the record business get going to me the shop was like ... well at about the time we had about six record stores around the city, in kingston.

q: were you selling domestic material and imported releases?

a: imported stuff, yeah. imported stuff that's right. well, you see before then we really cut them off because in my store now i was like a champion, bringing in the rhythm and blues, knew the records, what was happening, what was going, and the latest records.

q: were you importing the music from america for your shops?

a: yeah yeah, from america. as a matter of fact i did so well that after a while i was releasing records for king label, yeah, like nina simone "my baby just cares". and quite a few others i got the rights to.

q: how did you keep up with what was going on in america at that time?

a: yeah, go back and forth and then in the early days. now, when we were buying records from america for jamaica, these were old records. there weren't current records that's happening at the moment, so most of the time we had to go into places that had those old records. going into the basement, you take off your clothes, and put on something - you going all through dust! and soemtimes the record-seller turn oh so happy! because he was getting ready to throw them out and those were the records that were moving!! it was really current rhythm and blues because rhythm and blues really went down. and then came rock'n'roll, you understand, but it never went strong in jamaica.

q: where did you go to buy records in america?

a: i went to the new york area, you know, and philly and ohio - cleveland, ohio, but mostly philly, and all about here because new york had a few record companies, you know.

q: did you always go to buy records direct from warehouses?

a: warehouses, right, the warehouses.

q: how many records did you bring back at a time?

a: numerous records. and there were some warehouses were selling records, but these records were like blind buys. but it was so cheap it was worth the effort, so i was buying like, say, five and ten thousand lot. but you see after you buy a couple of time, you were able really to get to the owner and say: "send me anything of the following artist and don't send me whatever it is", and he was happy to send it. and then what trigger it off, whatever it is, sometime, out of ten thousand records you got, you might get about four hundred that is good, but you'll be able now to say, four or five, four hundred different record, maybe two hundred each and whatever it is ... because the ten thousand maybe cost you about 2 cents at that time, you know there is only the freight to come in, and it came too by the ship, so it wasn't too much. but it was what you could discover out of this ten thousand say it was stuff like what you call 'bush, but out of the ten there was stuff you could ask for good money for a good record. because say the going price was at that time 7 and 6, if you had a good record you could get three pounds and three pounds was a lot of money! (laughs)

q: did you ever buy records from the southern states of america?

a: no. imported records from there, but sorry i wasn't able to go down there because that is where the meat of the stuff was coming from, new orleans. new orleans oh, but sure i got to randy's in galleton, he was able to get what we need from there, you know. and while we really stick to new york or chicago, sometime maybe you have a friend or a relative in the area, you understand, to take care of the business.

q: are you proud of your role in music history?

a: well, looking back at the music business i really have no regret and i can safely say this, i am responsible about 80% of the artist that have a career today comingout of the west indies, because if the person didn't even sing for me, they using my rhythm, do you understand. so all the current artists you got out there, they because of studio one. they using the studio one rhythm.

q: do you think a lot of them know that?

a: yeah, they know that, they know that. and this why it keep the label alive, because here come a artist with a big song, and it obvious it coming from this studio one rhythm way back, so even the youths who didn't have that record would like to know and buy it, you know. so it have them advantage then and there, you know.

q: do you feel complimented by people using studio one material as an influence?

a: i've been ripped off, really, but somehow god is good to me, and the sensible people that's in the business are giving us the credit so we are able to collect here and there, you know.

q: it seems like hiphop in america and james brown?

a: yeah, because james brown was made more popular when hiphop came in than the time he was signing first!

q: thanks for your time.

a: yeah, man. welcome, welcome, welcome. 

03.01.08

La Campagne

on the necessity for formal metadata for unstructured information in the world wide web / without metadata an efficient search on a semantic level will turn out to be impossible, above all if it is not only applied to a terminological level but also to spatial-temporal knowledge.

in this context, the task of information integration is devided into: syntactic, structural and semantic integration. the last class by far being the most difficult, above all with respect to contextual semantic heterogenities.

as there are:

- intelligent search
- integration and / or translation of the data found
- search and relevance for spacial terms or concepts
- search and relevance for temporal terms